The Focus of Conservation
Conservation Encompasses
The Role of the Conservator
Knowledge and Ethos
Conservation Practice
Approaching Conservation Education Training
Apprenticeship
Graduate Academic Programs
Study Abroad

Financial Aid
Training Evaluation
Toward Professional Maturity
Continued Professional Training
New Directions in Conservation
Selected Bibliography
Organizations and Agencies
Conservation Degree and Internship Training Programs
Regional Conservation Associations

Conservation encompasses interdisciplinary approaches to the study and care of art and other cultural property. Conservators are professionals who have the specialized knowledge and skills in the arts, sciences, and other fields that enables them to undertake such activities. Conservation activities include carrying out technical and scientific studies on objects, stabilizing the structure and reintegrating the appearance of deteriorated cultural artifacts, and establishing the environment in which artifacts are best preserved. Often conservators specialize in a particular material or group of objects such as paintings, art on paper, textiles, archival and library materials, books, photographs, sculpture, or decorative arts. Others are concerned with architectural, archaeological, natural science, or ethnographic materials or contribute to the field as scientists, educators, and preservation administrators. Students considering a career in conservation should be aware of the commitment, education, and training required. Conservation demands a broad knowledge of many subjects in the sciences and humanities, the astuteness to make sound judgments, the development of artistic skills, and the temperament and ability to carry out precise work. In most conservation careers, a love and talent for working with one's hands is a vital ingredient. Specialized manual skills are essential for undertaking conservation treatments.

The Focus of Conservation

We can study and enjoy art, historic artifacts and documents, structures, and other unique objects of past and present cultures because they continue to survive through care, maintenance, or good fortune. Many conditions, natural and human-influenced, cause aging and deterioration. Light, extremes of humidity and temperature, pests, pollutants, and accidental damage hasten the breakdown of artifact materials. Action is sometimes necessary to preserve that which is original and unique.

Before this century, restorations were performed by "restorers," who were either self-taught or learned the materials and methods of the trade from other restorers. Their focus was the appearance of the restoration work, rather than the soundness or long-term benefit of their procedures.

In this century, conservation has developed into a multidisciplinary profession in which modern scientific methods have augmented craft traditions. Today conservation is highly specialized and yet demands a broad knowledge of many subjects, including art history, studio art, science, and materials technology.

Conservation Encompasses:

Examination procedures to determine the nature, method of manufacture, or properties of objects and the causes and extent of deterioration or alteration.

Scientific analysis and research on artifacts, to identify historic and artistic methods and materials, and on procedures and materials, to evaluate potential use in the care and conservation of artifacts.

Documentation procedures to record the condition of an object before, during, and after treatment and to outline treatment methods and materials in detail.

Preventive measures taken to minimize deterioration or damage of cultural property by providing controlled environments.

Treatment or interventive measures to stabilize artifacts or retard their deterioration.

Restoration actions to bring a deteriorated or damaged object closer to its original appearance or its appearance at a particular time with minimal sacrifice of aesthetic and historic integrity.

The Role of the Conservator

Conservators are professionals with specialized education and training who analyze and assess the condition and materials of cultural property, plan collection care, and carry out conservation treatments and programs. The conservation professional must select methods and materials that, to the best of current knowledge, do not endanger cultural property. Care is taken not to remove or add any materials that might alter or adversely affect the function, original structure, intended effect, or appearance of the object or future examination, scientific investigation, or treatment. In conservation, materials of predictable performance are selected and treatments are designed to be as reversible and minimally interfering as possible. If an artifact is reconstructed or restored, additions are done in such a way as to be distinguishable from the original and detectable by common examination methods. Improved methods and materials are being developed continually through research.

Conservators must have the following qualities:

• appreciation and respect for cultural property of all kinds-their historic and sociological significance, their aesthetic qualities, and the technology of their production

• aptitude for scientific and technical subjects

• patience for meticulous and tedious work

• good manual dexterity and color vision

• intelligence and sensitivity for making sound judgments

• ability to communicate effectively

The conservator's responsibilities include:

• investigation of the history, materials, and technology of cultural property

• examination and scientific analysis

• documentation of structure and condition through written and visual recording

• design of programs for preventive care and maintenance of collections and structures

• execution of conservation treatments

• contributions to the conservation profession

• keeping abreast of research and technology

Conservators work in a variety of environments, which include museums, regional facilities, heritage institutions, libraries, universities, archives, laboratories, government agencies, and private conservation enterprises.

Knowledge and Ethos

Conservation demands extended training, commitment, and a resolute pledge to achieve and maintain the education, ethos, and performance that the profession requires. The ethos-the underlying philosophical ideals and principles of the conservation profession-guides conservators to produce work of the highest order. These principles are outlined in the Code of Ethics and Guidelines for Practice published by the American Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works (AIC) (see Resources), the national organization of conservation professionals in the United States.

Conservation Practice

Most conservation positions involve treatment and care of collections. Generally, conservation practitioners focus in one or a cluster of conservation specialties, providing services through institutional or private (individual or group) employment. Typical job titles are conservator, preservation specialist, conservation scientist, conservation administrator, conservation educator, preparator, and technician.

Many museums and institutions have their own conservation departments; larger institutions often have separate departments for different specializations. In contrast, other institutions have limited or no conservation facilities and staff and contract some or all of their conservation work to private individuals or cooperative (regional) conservation laboratories. Other clientele of conservation services include collectors (individual and corporate) as well as art and antique dealers, galleries, auction houses, picture framers, and other businesses.

Many conservators choose to work in private practice, experiencing all of the benefits and risks of any business enterprise. Being on their own, they enjoy operational flexibility but lack the in-house support and funding opportunities available in larger institutions.

Salaries for conservators can vary greatly depending on experience, specialty, region, job description, and employer. Competition for positions in general is keen. The small size of the conservation community makes it relatively easy to keep abreast of job openings. Employment advertisements in the bimonthly AIC News, the monthly Aviso (American Association of Museums), and other museum, library and archival publications provide an accurate picture of the current job market and salaries. As public and private awareness of and appreciation for the need for conservation continues to grow, more positions and increased funding may become available. Ultimately, however, a person chooses a conservation career for rewards beyond the financial.

Approaching Conservation Education and Training

Conservation education and training should provide the required technical and scientific knowledge, develop appropriate aesthetic and perceptual abilities, and instill an essential ethical perspective. All forms of conservation education and training require great perseverance and dedication. Training opportunities are scarce and in great demand. Prospective students have to convince potential trainers of the seriousness of their interest in pursuing a career in conservation.

To learn about conservation, students should read conservation literature and consult national and regional professional organizations (see Resources). These organizations offer informative publications, activities, and opportunities to meet or contact conservators. Prior to seeking graduate conservation education, students should seek introductory volunteer positions with professionals working in the field to get a practical feel for the work. Those considering graduate education should contact the programs directly to learn of admission requirements (see Resources). Students seriously interested in pursuing conservation as a career should begin to assemble a portfolio documenting their studies and experience.

Apprenticeship

Long before the establishment of graduate degree programs in conservation, apprenticeships were the primary method of training. Today, this type of hands-on training remains an important part of every conservator's practical education, however, graduate education has become the more recognized route into the profession. The terms "apprenticeship" and "internship" may be used to refer to workplace training at any level of a conservator's development. Whether introductory as preparation for graduate study, as part of a degree program curriculum, or as individual study later in one's career, apprenticeships are excellent mechanisms for firsthand experience in treatment and working procedures.

A student may elect to pursue a series of apprenticeships and independent educational opportunities as an alternative to a formal graduate program. This approach invariably takes longer than the degree program to acquire comparable education, and professional recognition may be less assured. Apprenticeships vary greatly, and less emphasis may be placed on important theoretical, philosophical, and scientific aspects of conservation.

To acquire a complete conservation education, the student must supplement practical training with readings, course work, and research. Obtaining a balanced academic curriculum and training that is recognized within the profession is determined largely by the initiative and motivation of the individual student.

In choosing an apprenticeship, the student and supervisor should discuss the direction and extent of the training. Ideally, there should be basic guidelines or a job description that describes the objectives and responsibilities of the student and supervisor. In the best apprenticeship arrangements, students receive instruction and experience in a variety of procedures. Supervisors direct the students to readings and research that augment studio activity. As students progress, instruction advances to the next level. Conservation training requires working with conservation professionals and because of the nature of the field cannot rely on self-teaching.

To locate potential apprenticeship positions, students should consult newsletters and directories, such as the AIC News and the AIC Membership Directory (see Resources). Openings are limited in availability and may not be widely announced in general literature.

Graduate Academic Programs

The most direct conservation education route is through a recognized formal academic degree program, which generally requires two to four years of graduate study. North American education programs in the conservation of cultural property offer a master's degree and a certificate or diploma in conservation or related disciplines. These programs require four to six semesters in residence (or the equivalent), and some also require summer work projects. Typically, the final year of study is a full-time internship in which students are away from their programs working in their chosen conservation specialties under the guidance of experienced conservators. The academic programs concentrate initially on the theoretical and scientific aspects of conservation. Once a solid foundation has been established, the student moves steadily toward increased practical applications.

All of these graduate programs require the fulfillment of academic prerequisites, including courses in chemistry, in the humanities (art history, anthropology, and archaeology), and in studio art. In addition, knowledge of a foreign language is helpful for conservation research and required by some graduate programs. Specific admission requirements for the programs differ, and some will consider an applicant's previous experience and expertise in conservation practice. Potential candidates should contact the programs directly for details regarding prerequisites, application procedures, and program curriculum. With careful planning, an undergraduate curriculum can be tailored to satisfy the academic requirements of many or all of these graduate-level programs. Undergraduate prerequisites in chemistry, the humanities, and art are outlined in detail in "Undergraduate Prerequisites for Admission into a Graduate Conservation Training Program," a fact sheet available from the AIC office.

In addition to required course work, graduate programs strongly encourage students to obtain some conservation experience which can be gained through undergraduate introductory apprenticeship or field work. Appropriate experience may include work in regional, institutional, or private conservation laboratories. While not always an admission requirement, work experience may improve an applicant's prospects. Involvement in supervised collection care projects (collection assessments, rehousing, and exhibition design) and in examination and treatment of individual artifacts is encouraged. Above all, applicants are expected to be thoroughly acquainted with conservation as a career option, including having a fundamental knowledge of its philosophy, ethics, and basic working procedures.

A personal interview is a critical part of the application process. Candidates are usually asked to present a portfolio of art or conservation project work that demonstrates manual dexterity and familiarity with techniques and materials. Presentation and communication abilities are crucial skills, supplementing other credentials.

Since competition for program admission is intense, acceptance sometimes requires repeated application. To improve standing and prospects, applicants should undertake relevant studies before reapplying. Additional course work or conservation experience can be beneficial. On request, many graduate admission faculties will review applicant resumes and offer suggestions for further study.

The track record of the established graduate conservation training programs has been excellent, and professionals across the nation have come to recognize and expect the increasingly high level of education provided by these schools. The programs are limited in number and do not yet exist for all conservation specializations. Due to limited space, funding, and faculty resources, the programs accept only the most qualified applicants.

In addition to the master's degree programs, a limited number of Ph.D. programs have been established for advanced study in conservation.

Study Abroad

Apprenticeships and degree programs abroad offer excellent opportunities for students to explore other viewpoints and training experiences. They also expand study possibilities for specializations for which there may be intense competition or limited availability in the United States. Training may be in the form of site-specific projects, such as archaeological excavations or mural conservation, or positions in a conservation facility or training institution.

In other nations, students may expect to encounter somewhat different training philosophies and procedures. Students who study for an extended time abroad should anticipate an adjustment period on their return for reacquainting themselves with American colleagues and methods. When considering study abroad, trainees should investigate programs to be certain that the training offered is comparable in content and duration to that available in North America. The International Index on Training in Conservation (see Resources) is an invaluable reference to programs worldwide. In addition to contacting schools or institutions for information, students should speak with persons who have firsthand experience with the country, programs, and collections being considered.

Financial Aid

Formal degree and apprenticeship programs are intensive, allowing little spare time to supplement income by employment. During training, some forms of financial aid (e.g., partial stipends) may be available from graduate programs, but they are not assured. Students typically will find it necessary to seek supplemental funding from granting agencies, family members, and other lending institutions.

Remuneration for apprenticeships varies widely. Some apprenticeships offer hourly wages, a stipend, or some form of commissions. Many others provide no compensation beyond the tutelage and practical experience.

Training Evaluation

The conservation profession is continually evolving, as are education and training requirements. To assist in evaluating education, training, and professional preparation, students are encouraged to establish a dialogue with respected conservators, educators, scientists, or administrators. These individuals could act as mentors or advisers to review studies and training preparation, give constructive guidance about balanced career development, and provide opinions on future directions in the conservation profession. Whatever path a student chooses-structured apprenticeship or formal graduate program, education in the United States or abroad-the goal will always be the same: training to become a qualified, ethical, and professional conservator.

Toward Professional Maturity

Experienced conservators, looking back on their own career development, often relate that they did not attain professional maturity until several years, often 5 to 10, after their initial training. For this reason, recent trainees are encouraged to seek employment at facilities with diverse professional staff, significant collections, and progressive programs-in short, where there is the greatest potential for further professional development. While many recent graduates are entering into individual practice, working in isolation in the first few years after training is not recommended. There is no substitute for apprentice training with senior practitioners to hone fundamental skills and develop a broad-based understanding of the nuances of the conservation profession.

Continued Professional Training

Due to rapid changes in each conservation specialty, practicing conservators find it essential to keep abreast with advances in technology and methodology. Their knowledge and skills are expanded through reading publications, attending professional meetings, and enrollment in short-term workshops or courses. In recent years, the availability and quality of short-term advanced professional training opportunities have increased significantly. It is the responsibility of each conservator to take advantage of such opportunities and to contribute to them.

New Directions in Conservation

We are witnessing an increasing appreciation, both aesthetic and economic, of cultural material in all its forms. As a result, there is a growing interest in conservation and preservation; elevated standards in all areas of conservation; and the need to extend training into neglected specialties such as natural sciences, musical instruments, and technological artifacts where conservators and conservation support staff are virtually nonexistent.

New conservation specializations have been defined in response to the growing interest in collections maintenance and preventive care. Conservation, curatorial, and registration responsibilities are intermingling and producing new hybrid conservation professionals such as collections care, environmental monitoring, and exhibits specialists. In addition to conservator positions, there is recognition of the need for training technical support staff to address the magnitude of collections and their deterioration.

Conservation is a rewarding career. The rewards of the conservation profession are the satisfaction of preserving artifacts that reflect the diversity of human achievements; being in regular contact with unique art, artifacts, and structures; stimulating work places; association with professionals who share a similar dedication; and creative application of expertise to the preservation of artistically and historically significant objects.

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

American Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works. Guidelines for Selecting a Conservator. Washington, DC: AIC, 1991. 8 pp.

American Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works. Annual Membership Directory. Washington, DC: AIC. Includes Bylaws, Code of Ethics and Guidelines for Practice.

Getty Conservation Institute and International Centre for the Study of Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property. International Index on Training in Conservation. Marina del Rey, CA: Getty Conservation Institute and ICCROM, 1994. 140 pp.

National Committee to Save America's Cultural Collections. Caring for Your Collections. New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1992. 216 pp.

National Conservation Advisory Council. Report of the Study Committee on Education and Training. Washington, DC: NCAC [HP], 1980. 64 pp.

National Conservation Advisory Council. Suggested Guidelines for Training in Architectural Conservation. Washington, DC: NCAC [HP], 1980. 42 pp.

National Institute for the Conservation of Cultural Property. A Suggested Curriculum for Training in Ethnographic and Archaeological Conservation. Washington, DC: HP, 1984. 20 pp.

National Institute for the Conservation of Cultural Property. Training for Collections Care and Maintenance: A Suggested Curriculum. 4 vols. Washington, DC: HP, 1991. 269 pp.

National Trust for Historic Preservation. Guide to Degree Programs in Historic Preservation. Washington, DC: NTHP, annual. (Contact NTHP response center for a copy.)

Society of American Archivists. Education Directory. Chicago: SAA, annual. 14 pp.

United Kingdom Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works and the Conservation Unit, Museums and Galleries Commission. Training in Conservation: A Guide to Full-Time Courses in the United Kingdom. London: UKIC, 1993. 48 pp.

Ward, Philip. The Nature of Conservation: A Race Against Time. Marina del Rey, CA: Getty Conservation Institute, 1986. 69 pp.

ORGANIZATIONS AND AGENCIES

American Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works (AIC)
1156 15th St., NW, Ste. 320
Washington, DC 20005
(202) 452-9545; fax: (202) 452-9328

American Association for State and Local History (AASLH)
530 Church St., 6th Fl.
Nashville, TN 37219-2325
(615) 255-2971; fax: (615) 255-2979

American Association of Museums (AAM)
1225 Eye St., NW, Ste. 200
Washington, DC 20005
(202) 289-1818; fax: (202) 289-6578

American Institute of Architects (AIA)
1735 New York Ave., NW
Washington, DC 20006
(202) 626-7300; fax: (202) 626-7426

American Library Association (ALA)
Resources and Technical Services Division
50 E. Huron St.
Chicago, IL 60611
(312) 944-6780; (800) 545-2433; fax: (312) 440-9374

Association for Preservation Technology, International (APT)
P.O. Box 8178
Fredericksburg, VA 22404
(703) 373-1621; fax: (703) 373-6050

Heritage Preservation, Inc. (HP)
3299 K St., NW, Ste. 403
Washington, DC 20007
(202) 625-1495; fax: (202) 625-1485

International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property (ICCROM)
Via di San Michele 13, 00153 Rome, Italy
(6) 587-901; fax: (6) 588-4265

International Council of Museums (ICOM)
Committee for Conservation
c/o C. Perier d'Ieteren
Universite Libre de Bruxelles Faculte de Philosophie
50 Ave Franklin Roosevelt CP 175,
1050 Brussels, Belgium
32 (2) 650.24.66; fax: 32 (2) 650.24.50

International Council of Monuments and Sites, U.S. Committee
(US/ICOMOS)
Decatur House
1600 H St., NW
Washington, DC 20006
(202) 842-1866; fax: (202) 842-1861

International Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works
(IIC) 6 Buckingham St.
London WC2N 6BA, UK
44-71-839-5975; fax: 44-71-976-1564

International Institute for Conservation-Canadian Group (IIC-CG)
P.O. Box 9195
Ottawa K1G 3T9, Ont., Canada

National Park Service (NPS)
Curatorial Services
P.O. Box 37127
Washington, DC 20013-7127
(202) 343-8142; fax: (202) 343-1767

National Trust for Historic Preservation (NTHP)
Office of Preservation Services
1785 Massachusetts Ave., NW
Washington, DC 20036
(202) 673-4000; fax: (202) 673-4038

Society of American Archivists (SAA)
600 S. Federal St., Ste. 504, Chicago, IL 60605
(312) 922-0140; fax: (312) 347-1452

United Kingdom Institute for Conservation (UKIC)
6 Whitehorse Mews, Westminster Bridge Rd.
London SE1 7QD, UK
44-71-620-3371; fax: 44-71-620-3371

World Monuments Fund (WMF)
174 E. 80th St., New York, NY 10021
(212) 517-9367; fax: (212) 628-3146

CONSERVATION DEGREE AND INTERNSHIP TRAINING PROGRAMS
U-Undergraduate P-Postgraduate I-Internships G-Graduate D-Degree C-Courses

Art Conservation Department (GD)
State University College at Buffalo
230 Rockwell Hall, 1300 Elmwood Ave.
Buffalo, NY 14222
(716) 878-5025; fax: (716) 878-6914

Art Conservation Department (U, GD, PhD)
University of Delaware and Henry Francis du Pont Winterthur Museum
303 Old College, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716
(302) 831-3489; fax: (302) 831-4330

Art Conservation Programme (GD)
Queens University
Kingston K7L 3N6
Ontario, Canada
(613) 545-2156; fax: (613) 545-6300

Campbell Center for Historic Preservation Studies (C)
203 E. Seminary St., Mt.
Carroll, IL 61053
(815) 244-1173

Canadian Conservation Institute (GI, PI)
Training and Information Division
Dept. of Communications
1030 Innes Rd. Ottawa K1A 0C8
Ontario, Canada
(613) 998-3721; fax: (613) 998-4721

Center for Conservation and Technical Studies (GI, PI)
Harvard University Art Museums
32 Quincy St., Cambridge, MA 02138
(617) 495-2392; fax: (617) 495-9936

Columbia University (GD)
Graduate School of Architecture, Planning, & Preservation
400 Avery Hall
New York, NY 10027
(212) 854-3518

Conservation Analytical Laboratory (UI, GI, PI, C)
Training Program, MSC
Smithsonian Institution
Washington, DC 20560
(301) 238-3700; fax: (301) 238-3709

Conservation Center, Institute of Fine Arts (GD)
New York University
14 E. 78th St.
New York, NY 10021
(212) 772-5800; fax: (212) 772-5807

Johns Hopkins University (PhD)
(Ph.D. in materials science with a concentration in conservation science, sponsored by the Smithsonian Conservation Analytical Laboratory)
Dept. of Materials Science & Engineering, Rm. 102
Maryland Bldg.
Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218
(410) 516-8760

Getty Conservation Institute (C)
1200 Getty Center Drive
LosAngeles, CA 90048-1684
(310) 440-7325, fax
(310) 440-7702

Rocky Mountain Conservation Center/University of Denver (C)
(preconservation aide program and a certificate in preconservation studies)
2420 S. University Blvd.
Denver, CO 80208
(303) 733-2712; fax: (303) 871-4000

University of Pennsylvania (GD)
Graduate Program in Historic Preservation
Architectural Conservation Laboratory,
115 Meyerson Hall
Philadelphia, PA 19104-6311
(215) 898-3169; fax: (215) 898-9215

University of Texas at Austin (GD)
Graduate School of Library & Information Science
Preservation & Conservation Education Programs for Libraries and Archives
Austin, TX 78712-1276
(512) 471-3821; fax: (512) 471-3971

REGIONAL CONSERVATION ASSOCIATIONS

Chicago Area Conservation Group
c/o Carol Turchan
Chicago Historical Society
Clark St. at North Ave
Chicago, IL 60614-6099
(312) 642-5035, ext. 273; fax: (312) 266-2077

Midwest Regional Conservation Guild
c/o Kenneth Be
Cleveland Museum of Art
11150 East Blvd.
Cleveland, OH 44106
(216) 421-7340; fax: (216) 421-0411

New England Conservation Association
c/o Kathryn Myatt Carey
24 Emery St.
Medford, MA 02155
(617) 396-9495

New York Conservation Association
P.O. Box 20098
New York, NY 10011-0001

Textile Conservation Group, Inc.
c/o Textile Conservation Lab
Cathedral of St. John the Divine
1047 Amsterdam Ave.
New York, NY 10025

Virginia Conservation Association
P.O. Box 4314
Richmond, VA 23220

Washington Conservation Guild
P.O. Box 23364
Washington, DC 20026

Western Association for Art Conservation (WAAC)
c/o Chris Stavroudis
1272 N. Flores Street
Los Angeles, CA 90069-2904
(323) 654-8748; Fax: (323) 656-3220
cstavrou@ix.netcom.com
http://palimpsest.stanford.edu/waac/

Western New York Conservation Guild
c/o Diane Berlyn,
813 Richmond Ave
Buffalo, NY 14222
(716) 884-5229

The American Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works does not accredit any courses or programs of conservation training. This publication is for informational purposes only.